This text provides prospective and current teachers with a concise, non-technical, and practical guide to conducting a full range of high-quality classroom assessments. The text emphasizes assessment in the context of the realities of teaching and teacher decision-making in an era of standards-based education. Assessment methods are integrated with instruction and presented according to when teachers evaluate students (before, during, and after an instructional unit), the learning targets that are measured, and standards emphasized in state-wide testing. There is considerable emphasis on the nature of learning targets and how different assessments are most appropriate for different targets. For each assessment technique, suggestions for effective practice are presented with examples, case studies, and teacher interviews. This edition includes additional emphasis on formative assessment for student learning.
Table of Contents:
Preface xi
CHAPTER 1
The Role of Assessment in
Teaching 1
Integrating Instruction and Assessment 3
The Realities of Teaching 3
Instructional Decision Making and Assessment 5
What Is Classroom Assessment? 9
Purpose 9
Measurement 10
Evaluation 11
Use 12
Diagnosis 12
Grading 12
Instruction 12
Research on Learning, Motivation,
Instruction, and Curriculum: Implications
for Assessment 13
Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment 15
The Influence of Large-Scale Accountability
Testing 19
Teachers’ Classroom Assessment and
Grading Practices Decision Making 21
Assessment Standards for Teachers 23
¿ Summary 24
¿ What’s Coming 24
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 25
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 26
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 26
CHAPTER 2
Cognitive Learning Targets
and Standards 28
Knowing Where Your Students Are
Going 29
Educational Goals 29
Objectives 29
Standards 31
Criteria 34
Expectations 35
Learning Targets 36
Taxonomies of Educational
Objectives 38
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives 38
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Objectives 40
Marzano and Kendall’s New Taxonomy 40
Types of Knowledge Targets 42
Knowledge Representation 42
Declarative Knowledge and Understanding 45
Procedural Knowledge and Understanding 45
Deep Understanding and Reasoning 46
Sources for Learning Targets 48
Professional Preparation 48
Textbooks 49
Existing Lists of Objectives 50
National and State Standards 51
Criteria for Selecting Learning Targets
and Standards 53
CONTENTS
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¿ Summary 55
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 56
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 57
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 58
CHAPTER 3
High-Quality Classroom
Assessment 60
What Is High-Quality Classroom
Assessment? 61
Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets 61
Alignment of Assessment Methods
and Learning Targets 62
Types of Assessment Methods 62
Matching Targets with Methods 65
Knowledge and Simple Understanding 65
Deep Understanding and Reasoning 66
Skills 67
Products 67
Affect 67
Validity 68
What Is a Valid Assessment? 68
How Is Validity Determined? 68
Content-Related Evidence 69
Criterion-Related Evidence 71
Construct-Related Evidence 72
Reliability 73
What Is a Reliable Score? 73
Assessment Error 75
How Is Reliability Determined? 77
Sources of Reliability Evidence 77
Evidence Based on Stability 77
Evidence Based on Equivalent Forms 77
Evidence Based on Internal Consistency 78
Evidence Based on Scorer or Rater Consistency 78
Evidence Based on Decision Consistency 80
Factors Influencing Reliability Estimates 80
Fairness 80
Student Knowledge of Learning Targets and
Assessments 81
Opportunity to Learn 81
Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills 82
Avoiding Student Stereotyping 82
Avoiding Bias in Assessment Tasks and
Procedures 82
Accommodating Special Needs and English
Language Learners 84
A Model of Fairness in Classroom Assessment 84
Positive Consequences 86
Positive Consequences for Students 86
Positive Consequences for Teachers 88
Alignment 88
Practicality and Efficiency 91
Teacher Familiarity with the Method 91
Time Required 91
Complexity of Administration 92
Ease of Scoring 92
Ease of Interpretation 92
Cost 93
¿ Summary 93
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 94
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 95
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 96
¿ Endnote 97
CHAPTER 4
Formative Assessment I:
Gathering Evidence 98
What Is Formative Assessment? 99
Gathering Informal Formative Assessment
Evidence 102
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Informal Formative Assessment Observation 103
Assessing Nonverbal Behavior 103
Assessing Voice-Related Cues 108
Beginning of Year Observations 111
Sources of Error in Informal Observation 112
Informal Oral Questioning 114
Characteristics of Effective Questioning to Assess
Student Progress 115
Formal Formative Assessment 120
Preinstructional Structured Exercises 121
Pretests 121
Homework 122
In-Class Assignments 123
Quizzes and Unit Tests 123
Classroom Response Systems 124
Benchmark Assessments 125
Teacher Expectations 126
¿ Summary 128
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 129
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 130
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 132
CHAPTER 5
Formative Assessment II:
Feedback and Instructional
Adjustments 133
Providing Effective Feedback 134
Types of Feedback 135
Goal Directed 135
Scaffolded 136
Self-Referenced 137
Standards-Referenced 138
Norm-Referenced 138
Factors to Consider in Determining the
Nature of the Feedback 139
Amount 139
Timing 140
Mode 141
Audience 141
Type of Task 141
Differentiated Formative Feedback 142
Learner Level of Ability 142
Grade Level 143
Subject 143
Anticipating Feedback 144
What About Giving Praise? 145
Instructional Adjustments 147
Mastery Learning 148
Differentiated Instruction 149
Learning Progressions 150
A Model of Instructional Adjustments for
Formative Feedback 152
¿ Summary 152
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 154
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 154
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 155
CHAPTER 6
Planning and Implementing
Classroom Summative
Assessments 156
Planning and Summative Assessment 158
Representative Sampling 158
Number and Length of Assessments 159
Use of Assessments Provided by Textbook and
Test Publishers 160
Preparing Students for Summative Assessments 161
C O N T E N T S v
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Scheduling the Summative Assessment 162
When Summative Assessments Should Be
Constructed 162
Putting Summative Assessments
Together 165
Preparing Test Directions 165
Arranging Items 166
Physical Layout 166
Administering Summative Assessments 166
Unit/Chapter Tests 167
¿ Summary 168
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 169
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 169
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 170
CHAPTER 7
Selected-Response
Assessment: Multiple
Choice, Binary Choice, and
Matching 171
Multiple-Choice Items 172
Assessing Knowledge and Comprehension 176
Assessing Application 177
Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning 179
Binary-Choice Items 181
Assessing Knowledge and Comprehension 182
Assessing Deep Understanding and
Reasoning 184
Assessing Application 185
Matching Items 186
Interpretive Exercises 188
Assessing Comprehension 190
Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning 191
¿ Summary 193
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 193
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 194
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 196
CHAPTER 8
Constructed-Response
Assessment: Completion,
Short-Answer, and Essay
Items 197
Completion Items 198
Short-Answer Items 200
Assessing Knowledge and Comprehension 200
Assessing Deep Understanding and
Reasoning 202
Essay Items 204
Constructing Essay Items 209
Scoring Essays 212
¿ Summary 215
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 216
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review Items 217
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 218
¿ Endnote 218
CHAPTER 9
Constructed-Response
Assessment: Performance
Assessment 219
What Is Performance Assessment? 220
Strengths and Limitations of Performance
Assessments 221
Learning Targets for Performance
Assessments 224
Deep Understanding 224
Reasoning 224
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Skills 224
Communication and Presentations Skills 224
Psychomotor Skills 226
Products 228
Constructing Performance Tasks 229
Restricted- and Extended-Type Performance
Tasks 229
Performance Task Descriptions and Contexts 231
Performance Task Question or Prompt 232
Performance Criteria 239
Rubrics 240
Rating Scales 240
Developing Rubrics 243
¿ Summary 251
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 253
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 254
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 255
¿ Endnote 255
CHAPTER 10
Constructed-Response
Assessment: Portfolios 256
What Are Portfolios? 257
Advantages 259
Disadvantages 261
Planning for Portfolio Assessment 262
Purpose 263
Learning Targets 263
Uses 264
Identify Physical Structure 265
Determine Sources of Content 265
Determine Student Self-Reflective Guidelines and
Scoring Criteria 265
Implementing Portfolio Assessment 268
Review with Students 268
Supplying Portfolio Content 268
Student Self-Reflection 270
Teacher Evaluation 274
Checklists of Contents 274
Portfolio Structure Evaluation 274
Evaluations of Individual Entries 276
Evaluation of Entire Contents 276
Student—Teacher Conferences 277
Electronic Portfolios 278
¿ Summary 280
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 281
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 282
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 283
CHAPTER 11
Assessing Affective
Traits, Dispositions, and
Beliefs 284
Are Affective and Student Belief Targets
Important? 285
What Are Affective Traits and Learning
Targets? 287
Attitude Targets 288
Value Targets 289
Motivation Targets 290
Academic Self-Concept Targets 291
Social Relationship Targets 291
Classroom Environment Targets 292
Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives 294
Methods of Assessing Affective Targets 294
Teacher Observation 296
Unstructured Observation 297
Structured Observation 298
Student Self-Report 300
Student Interview 300
C O N T E N T S vii
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Questionnaires and Surveys 302
Constructed-Response Formats 302
Selected-Response Formats 303
Constructing Self-Report Items 309
Student Self-Assessment 310
Peer Ratings 317
Guess-Who Approach 318
Sociometric Approach 318
Which Method or Combination of Methods
Should I Use? 319
Ensuring Anonymity 320
¿ Summary 322
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 323
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 324
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 325
CHAPTER 12
Assessing Special Needs
and ELL Students 326
Assessing Students with Special Needs 327
Legal Mandates 327
Assessing Students for Identification 330
Mild Mental Retardation 333
Sensory Impairment 333
Physical Impairment 334
Learning Disability 334
Emotional Disturbance 334
Attention Deficits 335
Hyperactivity 335
Assessment Problems Encountered by
Students with Special Needs 336
Comprehension Difficulties 338
Auditory Difficulties 339
Visual Difficulties 339
Time Constraint Difficulties 339
Anxiety 340
Embarrassment 340
Variability of Behavior 340
Assessment Accommodations 340
Adaptations in Test Directions, Construction,
and Format 341
Short-Answer and Essay Items 342
Multiple-Choice Items 344
Binary-Choice Items 344
Completion Items 344
Performance Assessments 345
Portfolios 345
Adaptations in Test Administration 346
Adaptations in Testing Site 346
Grading and Reporting
Accommodations 348
Grading Accommodations 349
IEP Grading 349
Shared Grading 349
Contracting 350
Reporting Accommodations 351
English Language Learners in Inclusive
Settings 352
Factors Influencing ELL Assessments 352
Language and Literacy Skill Factors 352
Educational Background Factors 353
Cultural Factors 353
Identifying Difficulties that ELL Students Experience
in Classroom Assessment 353
Difficulty in Comprehending Test Language 353
Difficulty in Expressing What Is Known 354
Lack of Content and Cultural Knowledge
in Test Items 354
Unfamiliarity with Different
Types of Tests 354
Emotional Stress 355
Assessment Accommodations and
Modifications 355
Test Format 355
Test-Taking Procedures 356
Evaluating Performance and Providing
Feedback 356
¿ Summary 357
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¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 358
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 360
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 362
CHAPTER 13
Grading and Reporting
Student Performance 363
Teachers’ Judgments in Grading 364
Functions of Marking and Grading 367
Providing Feedback 367
Basis of Comparison 369
Norm-Referenced Grading 369
Standards-Based Grading 370
Motivation 372
Incorporating Factors Other Than
Performance 374
Aptitude 375
Improvement 375
Effort 376
Attendance 377
Attitudes 378
Approaches to Marking and
Grading 378
Letter Grades 378
Percentage Correct 380
Pass—Fail 382
Rubrics/Checklists 382
Standards-Based 383
Written Descriptions 384
Mixed Methods 385
Determining Report Card (Composite)
Grades 385
Select What to Include in the Final
Grade 386
Select Weights for Each Assessment 387
Combining Different Scores and Grades 389
Weighted Categories versus Total Points
Methods 389
Using Judgment when Combining Grades 392
Cheating 393
Recognizing Teacher Fallibility 393
Reporting Student Progress to Parents 395
Report Cards 396
Progress Reports 396
Parent—Teacher Conferences 397
Student—Led Conferences 398
¿ Summary 398
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 400
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 401
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 401
CHAPTER 14
Administering,
Interpreting, and Using
Standardized and State
Standards-Based Tests 403
Fundamental Descriptive Statistics 403
Frequency Distributions 404
Measures of Central Tendency 406
Measures of Variability 407
Measures of Relationship 409
Scatterplot 410
Correlation Coefficient 410
Types of Standardized Tests 411
Norm-Referenced Achievement Test
Batteries 413
Aptitude Tests 414
Readiness Tests 415
Standards-Based State and District Tests 415
Benchmark Assessments 417
C O N T E N T S ix
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Types of Derived Standardized Test
Scores 418
Standard Scores 418
Z-Score 418
Normal Curve Equivalent 419
Stanines 419
Scaled Score 420
Deviation IQ Scores 420
Other Standard Scores 420
Grade Equivalent Scores 421
Interpreting Standardized and State
Standards-Based Test Scores 421
Standard Error of Measurement 421
Alignment 423
Standards-Based/Criterion-Referenced
Interpretations 423
Understanding Standardized and Standards-
Based Test Score Reports 425
Using Standardized and Standards-Based/
Criterion-Referenced Test Scores 426
Interpreting Test Reports for Parents 429
Preparing Students to Take Standardized
Tests 431
Administering Standardized and Standards-
Based Tests 436
¿ Summary 437
¿ Self-Instructional Review Exercises 438
¿ Answers to Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 439
¿ Suggestions for Action Research 440
APPENDICES
A The Scope of a Teacher’s Profesional
Role and Responsibilities for Student
Assessment 441
B The Student Evaluation Standards 445
Glossary 448
References 453
Index 461
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About the Author :
James H. McMillan is professor and chair of foundations of education at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia, where he teaches educational research and assessment courses and directs the Research and Evaluation Track of the PhD in education program. He is also director of the Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium, a partnership of Virginia Commonwealth University and seven Richmond-area school divisions that conducts and disseminates action and applied research. His current research interests include classroom and large-scale assessment. He has recently published the third edition of Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction and edited Formative Classroom Assessment: Theory into Practice. He has authored three educational research methods textbooks and published numerous articles in journals, including the American Educational Research Journal, the Journal of Educational Psychology, Contemporary Educational Psychology, and Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice.
