Environmental Science: Toward A Sustainable Future: International Edition

For introductory courses in Environmental Science, Environmental Studies, and Environmental Biology.   As the field of environmental science continues to evolve, this highly readable guide presents a full spectrum of views and information for students to evaluate issues and make informed decisions. An extensive resource package integrates text and digital media in an easy-to-use format designed to assist instructors in classroom preparation.

Table of Contents:
1 Introduction: Toward a Sustainable Future 2 1.1 The Global Environmental Picture 5 Population Growth and Economic Development 5 The Decline of Ecosystems 6 Global Atmospheric Changes 7 Loss of Biodiversity 8 1.2 Three Strategic Themes: Sustainability, Stewardship, and Science 8 Sustainability 9 Stewardship 11 Science 13 1.3 Three Integrative Themes: Ecosystem Capital, Policy/Politics, and Globalization 16 Ecosystem Capital 16 Policy and Politics 17 Globalization 18 1.4 The Environment in the 21st Century 19 A New Commitment 21 Revisiting the Themes 21 Review Questions 22 Thinking Environmentally 23 ¿ ethics What Is the Stewardship Ethic? 12 ¿ global perspective Red Sky at Morning 20 Part One Ecosystems: Basic Units of the Natural World 24 2 Ecosystems: What They Are 26 2.1 Ecosystems: A Description 28 2.2 The Structure of Ecosystems 31 Trophic Categories 31 Trophic Relationships: Food Chains, Food Webs, and Trophic Levels 35 Nonfeeding Relationships 37 Abiotic Factors 40 2.3 From Ecosystems to Global Biomes 41 The Role of Climate 41 Microclimate and Other Abiotic Factors 45 Biotic Factors 45 Physical Barriers 46 Summary 46 2.4 The Human Presence 47 Three Revolutions 47 Revisiting the Themes 50 Review Questions 51 Thinking Environmentally 51 ¿ earth watch Limiting Factors and the Woodland Caribou in Alberta, Canada 47 ¿ global perspective Can Ecosystems Be Restored? 48 3 Ecosystems: How They Work 52 3.1 Matter, Energy, and Life 54 Matter in Living and Nonliving Systems 54 Energy Basics 58 Energy Changes in Organisms 60 3.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 64 Primary Production 64 Energy Flow and Efficiency 65 Running on Solar Energy 67 3.3 The Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems 67 The Carbon Cycle 68 The Phosphorus Cycle 69 The Nitrogen Cycle 70 3.4 Implications for Human Societies 73 Ecosystem Sustainability 73 Value of Ecosystem Capital 74 The Future 77 Revisiting the Themes 77 Review Questions 78 Thinking Environmentally 79 ¿ global perspective Light and Nutrients: The Controlling Factors in Marine Ecosystems 66 ¿ ethics Ecosystem Stakeholders 75 Contents viii WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page viii 4 Ecosystems: How They Change 80 4.1 Dynamics of Natural Populations 82 Population Growth Curves 82 Biotic Potential versus Environmental Resistance 83 Density Dependence and Critical Number 85 4.2 Mechanisms of Population Equilibrium 85 Predator—Prey Dynamics 85 Competition 88 Introduced Species 91 4.3 Evolution as a Force for Change 95 Adaptation through Natural Selection 95 Drifting Continents 100 4.4 Ecosystem Responses to Disturbance 102 Ecological Succession 102 Disturbance and Resilience 105 Evolving Ecosystems? 107 4.5 Living Beyond Our Means 109 Managing Ecosystems 109 Pressures on Ecosystems 110 Revisiting the Themes 111 Review Questions 112 Thinking Environmentally 112 Making a Difference Part One: Chapters 2, 3, 4 113 ¿ guest essay The Village Weaverbird: Marvel or Menace? 91 ¿ earth watch Environmental Tipping Points 108 Part Two The Human Population 114 5 The Human Population 116 5.1 Human Population Expansion and Its Cause 118 Reasons for the Patterns of Growth 118 5.2 Different Worlds 121 Rich Nations, Poor Nations 121 Population Growth in Rich and Poor Nations 121 Different Populations, Different Problems 123 5.3 Consequences of Population Growth and Affluence 124 The Developing Countries 125 Affluence 128 5.4 Dynamics of Population Growth 130 Population Profiles 130 Future Populations 132 Population Momentum 135 The Demographic Transition 136 Revisiting the Themes 139 Review Questions 140 Thinking Environmentally 141 ¿ ethics Immigration: An American Tradition 128 ¿ earth watch Are We Living Longer? 132 6 Population and Development 142 6.1 Reassessing the Demographic Transition 144 Large Families or Small? 145 6.2 Promoting Development 148 Good and Bad News 148 Millennium Development Goals 150 World Agencies at Work 152 The Debt Crisis 153 Development Aid 154 6.3 A New Direction: Social Modernization 156 Improving Education 156 Improving Health 157 AIDS 157 Family Planning 158 Employment and Income 160 Resource Management 161 Putting It All Together 162 6.4 The Cairo Conference 162 Revisiting the Themes 163 Review Questions 164 Thinking Environmentally 165 Making a Difference Part Two: Chapters 5 and 6 165 ¿ guest essay Poverty Traps and Natural Resources Management 149 ¿ ethics China’s Population Policies 160 Contents ix WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page ix Part Three Renewable Resources 166 7 Water: Hydrologic Cycle and Human Use 168 7.1 Water: A Vital Resource 170 7.2 Hydrologic Cycle: Natural Cycle, Human Impacts 170 Evaporation, Condensation, and Purification 170 Precipitation 173 Groundwater 174 Pools and Fluxes in the Cycle 175 Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle 175 7.3 Water: A Resource to Manage, a Threat to Control 177 Uses and Sources 177 Surface Waters 180 Groundwater 182 7.4 Water Stewardship: Public Policy Challenges 185 Obtaining More Water 185 Using Less Water 187 Public-Policy Challenges 189 Revisiting the Themes 191 Review Questions 192 Thinking Environmentally 193 ¿ global perspective Water: Key to Life and Progress in Darewadi 185 ¿ global perspective The Fourth World Water Forum 190 8 Soil: Foundation for Land Ecosystems 194 8.1 Soil and Plants 196 Soil Characteristics 196 Soil and Plant Growth 199 The Soil Community 201 8.2 Soil Degradation 203 Erosion 204 Drylands and Desertification 205 Causing and Correcting Erosion 207 Irrigation and Salinization 211 8.3 Conserving the Soil 212 Public Policy and Soils 212 Helping Individual Landholders 213 Revisiting the Themes 216 Review Questions 216 Thinking Environmentally 217 ¿ ethics Erosion by Equation 210 ¿ global perspective Three-Strata Forage System for Mountainous Drylands 214 x Contents 9 The Production and Distribution of Food 218 9.1 Crops and Animals: Major Patterns of Food Production 220 The Development of Modern Industrialized Agriculture 220 The Green Revolution 222 Subsistence Agriculture in the Developing World 223 Animal Farming and Its Consequences 224 Prospects for Increasing Food Production 226 9.2 From Green Revolution to Gene Revolution 228 The Promise 228 The Problems 230 Policies 231 9.3 Food Distribution and Trade 232 Patterns in Food Trade 232 Food Security 233 9.4 Hunger, Malnutrition, and Famine 236 Nutrition vs. Hunger 236 Extent and Consequences of Hunger 237 Root Cause of Hunger 238 Famine 238 Hunger Hot Spots 240 Food Aid 240 Closing Thoughts on Hunger 241 Revisiting the Themes 242 Review Questions 243 Thinking Environmentally 243 ¿ ethics Feeding the Hungry in the United States 234 ¿ global perspective World Food Summit 236 WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page x Contents xi 10 Wild Species and Biodiversity 244 10.1 The Value of Wild Species 246 Biological Wealth 246 Two Kinds of Value 246 Sources for Agriculture, Forestry, Aquaculture, and Animal Husbandry 247 Sources for Medicine 248 Recreational, Aesthetic, and Scientific Value 249 Value for Their Own Sake 249 10.2 Saving Wild Species 251 Game Animals in the United States 251 Protecting Endangered Species 253 10.3 Biodiversity and Its Decline 258 The Decline of Biodiversity 259 Reasons for the Decline 261 Consequences of Losing Biodiversity 265 10.4 Protecting Biodiversity 266 International Developments 266 Stewardship Concerns 267 Revisiting the Themes 269 Review Questions 270 Thinking Environmentally 271 ¿ earth watch Return of the Gray Wolf 257 ¿ global perspective Biodiversity: Essential or Not? 266 11 Ecosystem Capital: Use and Restoration 272 11.1 Global Perspective on Biological Systems 274 Major Systems and Their Goods and Services 274 Ecosystems as Natural Resources 274 11.2 Conservation, Preservation, Restoration 276 Conservation Versus Preservation 276 Patterns of Human Use of Natural Ecosystems 277 Restoration 280 11.3 Biomes and Ecosystems under Pressure 283 Forest Biomes 283 Ocean Ecosystems 287 11.4 Public and Private Lands in the United States294 National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges 295 National Forests 296 Protecting Nonfederal Lands 298 Final Thoughts 299 Revisiting the Themes 299 Review Questions 300 Thinking Environmentally 301 Making a Difference Part Three: Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 301 ¿ earth watch Will Aquaculture Be Able to Fill the Gap? 289 ¿ global perspective The Mangrove Man 295 Part Four Energy 302 12 Energy from Fossil Fuels 304 12.1 Energy Sources and Uses 306 Harnessing Energy Sources: An Overview 306 Electrical Power Production 308 Matching Sources to Uses 311 12.2 Exploiting Crude Oil 312 How Fossil Fuels Are Formed 313 Crude-Oil Reserves Versus Production 314 Declining U.S. Reserves and Increasing Importation 314 Problems of Growing U.S. Dependency on Foreign Oil 317 12.3 Other Fossil Fuels 321 Natural Gas 321 Coal 322 Oil Shales and Oil Sands 323 12.4 Energy Security and Policy 323 Security Threats 323 Energy Policies 324 Revisiting the Themes 327 Review Questions 328 Thinking Environmentally 329 ¿ earth watch CHP: Industrial Common Sense 326 13 Energy from Nuclear Power 330 13.1 Nuclear Energy in Perspective 332 13.2 How Nuclear Power Works 334 From Mass to Energy 334 Comparing Nuclear Power with Coal Power 337 WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xi 13.3 The Hazards and Costs of Nuclear Power Facilities 339 Radioactive Emissions 339 Radioactive Wastes 341 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes 341 Nuclear Power Accidents 343 Safety and Nuclear Power 346 Economics of Nuclear Power 347 13.4 More Advanced Reactors 349 Breeder (Fast-neutron) Reactors 349 Fusion Reactors 349 13.5 The Future of Nuclear Power 351 Opposition 351 Rebirth of Nuclear Power 351 Revisiting the Themes 352 Review Questions 353 Thinking Environmentally 353 ¿ ethics Showdown in the New West 344 14 Renewable Energy 354 14.1 Putting Solar Energy to Work 357 Principles of Solar Energy 357 Solar Heating of Water 358 Solar Space Heating 358 Solar Production of Electricity 361 The Future of Solar Energy 364 14.2 Indirect Solar Energy 365 Hydropower 365 Wind Power 367 Biomass Energy 368 14.3 Renewable Energy for Transportation 369 Biofuels 370 Hydrogen: Highway to the Future? 371 14.4 Additional Renewable- Energy Options 374 Geothermal Energy 374 Tidal Power 374 Ocean Thermal-Energy Conversion 375 14.5 Policies for a Sustainable- Energy Future 375 National Energy Policy 375 Revisiting the Themes 379 Review Questions 380 Thinking Environmentally 380 Making a Difference, Part Four: Chapters 12, 13, and 14 381 ¿ earth watch Economic Payoff of Solar Energy 365 ¿ ethics Transfer of Energy Technology to the Developing World 366 ¿ guest essay Caring for Planet Earth through the Proper Use of Our Energy Resources 378 xii Contents Part Five Pollution and Prevention 382 15 Environmental Hazards and Human Health 384 15.1 Links between Human Health and the Environment 386 The Picture of Health 387 Public Health 387 Environmental Hazards 387 15.2 Pathways of Risk 394 The Risks of Being Poor 394 The Cultural Risk of Tobacco Use 396 Risk and Infectious Diseases 397 Toxic Risk Pathways 399 Disaster Risk 401 15.3 Risk Assessment 402 Environmental Risk Assessment by the EPA 403 Public-Health Risk Assessment 404 Risk Management 405 Risk Perception 406 Revisiting the Themes 407 Review Questions 409 Thinking Environmentally 409 ¿ global perspective An Unwelcome Globalization 400 16 Pests and Pest Control 410 16.1 The Need for Pest Control 412 WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xii Contents xiii 16.2 Promises and Problems of the Chemical Approach 414 Development of Chemical Pesticides and Their Successes 414 Problems Stemming from Chemical Pesticide Use 415 16.3 Alternative Pest Control Methods 421 Cultural Control 422 Control by Natural Enemies 423 Genetic Control 425 Natural Chemical Control 428 16.4 Socioeconomic Issues in Pest Management 429 Pressures to Use Pesticides 429 Integrated Pest Management 430 Organically Grown Food 431 16.5 Pesticides and Policy 432 FIFRA 432 FFDCA 433 Pesticides in Developing Countries 433 Revisiting the Themes 434 Review Questions 435 Thinking Environmentally 435 ¿ ethics DDT for Malaria Control: Hero or Villain? 416 ¿ global perspective Wasps 1, Mealybugs O 426 17 Water Pollution and Its Prevention 436 17.1 Water Pollution 438 Pollution Essentials 438 Water Pollution: Sources, Types, Criteria 440 17.2 Wastewater Management and Treatment 447 Development of Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems 447 The Pollutants in Raw Wastewater 447 Removing the Pollutants from Wastewater 449 Treatment of Sludge 451 Alternative Treatment Systems 452 17.3 Eutrophication 454 Different Kinds of Aquatic Plants 454 The Impacts of Nutrient Enrichment 455 Combating Eutrophication 455 17.4 Public Policy 460 Revisiting the Themes 461 Review Questions 462 Thinking Environmentally 463 ¿ earth watch Monitoring for Sewage Contamination 443 ¿ earth watch The Algae from Hell 458 18 Municipal Solid Waste: Disposal and Recovery 464 18.1 The Solid-Waste Problem 466 Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste 466 Landfills 467 Combustion: Waste to Energy 470 Costs of Municipal Solid-Waste Disposal 472 18.2 Solutions to the Solid-Waste Problem 472 Source Reduction 472 The Recycling Solution 473 Municipal Recycling 474 Regional Recycling Options 478 18.3 Public Policy and Waste Management 478 The Regulatory Perspective 479 Integrated Waste Management 479 Revisiting the Themes 482 Review Questions 482 Thinking Environmentally 483 ¿ earth watch The Nantucket Story 479 ¿ ethics “Affluenza”: Do You Have It? 481 19 Hazardous Chemicals: Pollution and Prevention 484 19.1 Toxicology and Chemical Hazards 486 Dose Response and Threshold 486 The Nature of Chemical Hazards: HAZMATs 486 Sources of Chemicals Entering the Environment 487 The Threat from Toxic Chemicals 488 Involvement with Food Chains 491 19.2 A History of Mismanagement 491 Methods of Land Disposal 491 Scope of the Mismanagement Problem 494 19.3 Cleaning Up the Mess 496 Ensuring Safe Drinking Water 496 Groundwater Remediation 496 Superfund for Toxic Sites 496 19.4 Managing Current Hazardous Wastes 500 The Clean Air and Water Acts 501 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 501 Reduction of Accidents and Accidental Exposures 502 19.5 Broader Issues 503 Environmental Justice and Hazardous Wastes 503 Pollution Prevention for a Sustainable Society 505 Revisiting the Themes 506 Review Questions 507 Thinking Environmentally 507 ¿ earth watch Woburn’s “Civil Action” 499 ¿ earth watch Daniel S. Granz, EPA Environmental Engineer 500 WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xiii 20 The Atmosphere: Climate, Climate Change, and Ozone Depletion 508 20.1 Atmosphere and Weather 510 Atmospheric Structure 510 Weather 510 20.2 Climate 512 Climates in the Past 513 Ocean and Atmosphere 513 20.3 Global Climate Change 515 The Earth as a Greenhouse 515 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Fourth Assessment 517 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment 528 What About the Antarctic? 529 20.4 Response to Climate Change 530 Response 1: Mitigation 530 Response 2: Adaptation 533 20.5 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 534 Radiation and Importance of the Shield 534 Formation and Breakdown of the Shield 535 Coming to Grips with Ozone Depletion 538 Revisiting the Themes 540 Review Questions 541 Thinking Environmentally 541 ¿ ethics Stewardship of the Atmosphere 518 ¿ global perspective Coping with UV Radiation 536 21 Atmospheric Pollution 542 21.1 Air Pollution Essentials 544 Pollutants and Atmospheric Cleansing 544 The Appearance of Smog 545 21.2 Major Air Pollutants and Their Sources 546 Primary Pollutants 547 Secondary Pollutants 549 Acid Deposition 551 21.3 Impacts of Air Pollutants 555 Effects on Human Health 556 Effects on the Environment 558 21.4 Bringing Air Pollution Under Control 561 Control Strategies 562 Limiting Pollutants from Motor Vehicles 562 Coping with Acid Deposition 565 21.5 Regulatory Issues 567 Revisiting the Themes 569 Review Questions 570 Thinking Environmentally 571 Making a Difference Part Five: Chapters 15 through 21 571 ¿ global perspective Mexico City: Life in a Gas Chamber 548 ¿ earth watch Portland Takes a Right Turn 568 xiv Contents Part Six Toward a Sustainable Future 572 22 Economics, Public Policy, and the Environment 574 22.1 Economics and Public Policy 576 The Need for Environmental Public Policy 576 Relationships between Economic Development and the Environment 577 Economic Systems 577 22.2 Resources and the Wealth of Nations 579 The Wealth of Nations 580 Shortcomings of the GNP 584 Resource Distribution 585 22.3 Pollution and Public Policy 586 Public Policy Development: The Policy Life Cycle 586 Economic Effects of Environmental Public Policy 588 Policy Options: Market or Regulatory? 591 22.4 Benefit—Cost Analysis 592 External and Internal Costs 592 The Costs of Environmental Regulations 592 The Benefits of Environmental Regulation 594 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 595 22.5 Politics, the Public, and Public Policy 596 Politics and the Environment 596 Citizen Involvement 598 Revisiting the Themes 598 Review Questions 599 Thinking Environmentally 599 WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xiv Contents xv ¿ global perspective The World Trade Organization 581 ¿ guest essay A Transformational Environmental Policy 589 ¿ earth watch Green Fees and Taxes 592 23 Sustainable Communities and Lifestyles 600 23.1 Urban Sprawl 602 The Origins of Urban Sprawl 603 Measuring Sprawl 606 Impacts of Urban Sprawl 607 Reining in Urban Sprawl: Smart Growth 609 23.2 Urban Blight 610 Economic and Ethnic Segregation 610 The Vicious Cycle of Urban Blight 610 Economic Exclusion of the Inner City 612 Urban Blight in Developing Countries 612 What Makes Cities Livable? 614 23.3 Moving toward Sustainable Communities 616 Sustainable Cities 616 Sustainable Communities 617 23.4 Toward the Common Good 619 Our Dilemma 619 Lifestyle Changes 620 Revisiting the Themes 622 Review Questions 623 Thinking Environmentally 623 Making a Difference Part Six: Chapters 22 and 23 623 ¿ ethics The Tangier Island Covenant 620 Appendix A Environmental Organizations 625 Appendix B Units of Measure 629 Appendix C Some Basic Chemical Concepts 631 Credits 639 Glossary 643 Index 667

About the Author :
Richard T. Wright is Professor Emeritus of Biology at Gordon College in Massachusetts, where he taught environmental science for 28 years. He earned a B.A. from Rutgers University and a M.A. and Ph.D. in biology from Harvard University. For many years Wright received grant support from the National Science Foundation for his work in marine microbiology, and in 1981, he was a founding faculty member of Au Sable Institute of Environmental Studies in Michigan, where he also served as Academic Chairman for 11 years. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Au Sable Institute, and the American Association for the Advancement Scientific Affiliation. In 1996, Wright was appointed a Fulbright Scholar to Daystar University in Kenya, where he taught for tow months. He is a member of many environmental organizations, including The Nature Conservancy, Habitat for Humanity, the Union of Concerned Scientists, the Audubon Society, and a supporting member of the Trustees of Reservations. Wright continues to be actively involved in writing and speaking about the environment. He and his wife Ann recently moved to Byfield, Massachusetts, and they drive a Toyota Camry hybrid vehicle as a means of reducing their environmental impact. Wright spends his spare time hiking, fishing, golfing, and enjoying his three children and seven grandchildren.