Human Biological Diversity

This text is intended for the sophomore level course in human variation/human biology taught in anthropology departments. In addition to covering the standard topics for the course, it features contemporary topics in human biology such as the Human Genome Project, genetic engineering, the effects of stress, obesity, disability and pollution. An excellent resource and reference work for readers interested in or involved with in-depth studies of Biological Anthropology.

Table of Contents:
Preface   Chapter 1: Introduction p.1 Chapter Summary   Chapter 2:  Concepts of Evolution p.7 A Brief History of Evolutionary Ideas     Ideas About Time         Western Ideas         Contemporary Western Views of Time         Some Non-Western Concepts of Time     The Great Chain of Being Scientific Approaches to Evolution:     Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution     Darwin’s Theory of Evolution         Offspring Resemble Parents         Variation         Overpopulation         Natural Selection Types of Evidence for Evolution     Creationists Vs. Evolutionists     Adaptation         Concealment         Mimicry         A Human Example: High Altitude Adaptation in Tibet         Imperfect Adaptations     Paleontology     Biogeography     Comparative Anatomy         Homologous Vs. Analogous Structures         Vestigial Structures     Comparative Embryology     Artificial Selection     Other Evidence for Evolution Chapter Summary   Chapter 3:  Genetics and Microevolution p.26 The Chemical Basis of Life     Proteins         Protein Structure         Protein Function     Nucleic Acids         DNA Structure         DNA function     Duplication of DNA     Direction of Protein Synthesis         Messenger RNA         Ribosomes         Transfer RNA Genetics     Sexual Reproduction         Mitosis         Meiosis     Mendelian Genetics         Alleles Vs. Loci         Principle of Dominance         Principle of Segregation         Principle of Independent Assortment         Genotype and Phenotype         Consequences of Mendel’s Principles         Sex Chromosomes         Complex Traits         Mutations Microevolution     Introduction to Population Genetics         Frequencies         Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium     Forces of Evolution         Selection         Types of Selection         Mutation         Genetic Load         Migration and Gene Flow         Genetic Drift         Assortative Mating The Synthetic Theory of Evolution Chapter Summary   Chapter 4: Molecular Genetics, Genomics and Human Genetics p.48 A Closer Look at Chromosomes     Characteristics of Chromosomes         Chromosome Structure         Chromosome Structure and Function         Regulatory Regions of DNA         Special Features on Chromosomes         Other Types of Repeated DNA Sequences     Chromosome Mapping         Linkage Maps         Linkage Maps of the X Chromosome         Mapping By Means of RFLPs         Microsatellites in Mapping         DNA Sequencing         Polymerase Chain Reaction     Epigenetics         Methylation of DNA         Imprinting         In Utero Effects Extrachomosomal Genetics     RNA Processing         Introns and Exons         Other mRNA Processing         Why the Complexity?         When Things Go Wrong     Mitochondrial DNA         Origins of Mitochondria         Mitochondrial DNA     Chloroplast DNA Tracing Genetic Variability and Function     Genetic Variability         Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)         Oligonucleotide Hybridization Analysis         DNA Chips         Other Allele Differences     Understanding Gene Function         Gene Inactivation         RNA Interference         Gene Overexpression     A Brief Look at Quantitative Genetics         Basis of Quantitative Genetics         Heritability Human Genetics and the Human Genome     Family Studies in Human Genetics         Twin Studies         Adoption Studies     The Human Genome     The Human Genome Project     The Next Step? Chapter Summary   Chapter 5:  Macroevolution and Taxonomy p.66 Taxonomy     Species and Speciation         Species         Sibling Species and "Semispecies"         Speciation         Adaptive Radiation         Rapid Divergent Evolution in Overlapping Incipient Species         Anagenesis         Evolutionary Significance of Species     Taxonomic Units Above the Species Level         Genera         Families         Orders         Classes         Phyla         Kingdoms         Two Taxonomic Examples: People and Dogs         Intermediate Levels of Taxonomy         Subspecies or Races         Taxonomy Debates Macroevolution     Some Highlights in the History of Life: An Anthropocentric View         Origin of the Earth         Earliest Life         Origin of the Eukaryotes         Multi-cellular Life         Early Vertebrates         Reptiles and Birds         Mammals         Primates         Anthropoids     The Human Journay            Early Hominids         Ardipithecus Ramidus         Australopithecus         Homo Habilis         Plio-Pleistocene Hominids         Homo Erectus         Homo Sapiens     Macroevolutionary Processes         Tempo and Mode in Evolution         Extinction         Mass Extinctions         Survivors Chapter Summary   Chapter 6:  “Race” and Human Variation in Physical Traits p. 89 “Race”     “Race,” Population, and Ethnic Group     Clines Versus Clumps     A Short History of Western “Race” Concepts: Ancient         Ancient Views of “Race”         The Greek Myth of Phaethon         Greek Humoral View of Human Variability         Biblical View of “Races”         Other Ancient Views of Human Variation         Western Views of “Race” in the 15th - 17th Centuries     A Short History of Race Concepts: Modern         Monogenists Vs. Polygenists         “Race” and Racism         Lamarck’s Evolutionary Theory and “Race”         Darwin and “Race”         Successors to Darwin         Carleton Coon and the Origin of “Races”         The "New" Physical Anthropology         American Anthropological Association Statement on “Race” Phenotypic Characteristics of Human Variability     Nature Versus Nurture         Heritability     Human Pigmentation: Skin Color         Melanin         Biochemistry of Melanin Production         Environmental Effects on Melanin         Genetics of Melanin Production         Other Determinants of Skin Color         The Measurement of Skin Color         Intra-Individual Variability in Skin Color         Is There Selective Value to Differential Skin Color?         UV Radiation and Skin Color Variation         Skin Color Variation and Vitamin D Synthesis         Skin Color Variation and Folate Photolysis         Skin Color Variation and Concealment         Skin Color as a “Racial” Marker     Human Pigmentation: Hair and Eye Color         Hair Color         Age and Hair Color         Genetics of Hair Color         Adaptive Value of Head Hair Color Variation         Eye Color     Hair Form     Epicanthic Eyefolds     Body Size and Shape         Human Variability in Stature         Secular Trend in Stature         Short Statured Populations         Human Variability in Body Weight         The Thrifty Genotype         Body Shape and Climate         Temporal Dimension of Body Shape     Head Form Dermatoglyphics     Skeletal and Dental Variation     Age Differences in the Skeleton and Teeth     Sex Differences in the Skeleton     Individual Variation in Skeletal and Dental Features “Race” and Intelligence     What Is Intelligence?         IQ Versus Intelligence         Changes in IQ Tests     IQ and Heredity     Population Differences in IQ         Asian-Americans Versus Euro-Americans         African-Americans Versus Euro-Americans         The Bell Curve Patterns of Human Variability Chapter Summary   Chapter 7:  Genotypic Traits and the Tracing of Population Affiliations p.116 Genotypic Traits Traditionally Used in Human Biology     Blood Groups: The ABO System         Basics of the ABO System         The ABO Antigens         Genetics of the ABO System         Consequences of ABO Variation         Distribution of ABO Allele Frequencies     The MNSs Blood Group Systems         The MN Locus         Distribution of MN Alleles in Human Populations         The Ss Locus     The Rhesus (Rh) Blood Group System         The Genetics of the Rh System         Rh and Maternal-Fetal Incompatability         The Distribution of Rh Polymorphisms     Hemoglobin Variants         Hemoglobin S and Sickle Cell Anemia         Genetics of Sickle-Cell         Sickle-Cell and Falciparum Malaria         Balanced Polymorphism         Complexity         Thalassemia         Thalassemia and Malaria         Hemoglobin E         Other Variant Hemoglobins     Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Genetic Traits From Contemporary Molecular Biology Used in Human Biology     Major Types of Molecular Genetic Studies Used in Human Biology         Mitochondrial DNA         Y Chromosome         Nuclear DNA         Uses for Human Molecular Genetics Studies     The Genetic History of Homo Sapiens         Human Genetic Diversity         Dating Divergences and Ancestry: The Molecular Clock     Genetics and Human Population Affinities         The Human Genome Diversity Project         Genetics and Human Migrations         Out of Africa         Genetic Data and the Origin of Modern Humans         Where Did Pacific Islanders Come From?         The Express Train Or an Entangled Bank?         The Peopling of America         Dating American Origins         Tracing the Origins of Specific Populations Through Genetics         The Roma         African-American Admixture         How Do the Saami Relate to Other European Populations?         The Ancestry of Papuan "Pygmoid" Populations         Genetics and Disease Risk     Genetics and the Notion of "Race" Chapter Summary   Chapter 8:  Demography: Populations, Reproduction and Mortality p.142 Population Ecology     Population Growth         Specific Growth Rate         Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance         Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase         Population Growth Curves         Carrying Capacity         Survivorship         Population Structure         Age Structure of Populations         Sex Ratios     Population Ecology: Concluding Remarks Demography of Human Populations     Fertility and Fecundity         Male Fecundity         Female Fecundity         Age and Fecundity         Hypoxia and Fecundity         Disease and Fecundity         Nutrition, Energetics and Fecundity         High Levels of Work and Fecundity         Adaptation and Reduced Fecundity         Lactation and Fecundity         Cultural Effects on Fertility     Mortality         Mortality From a Global Perspective         Life Tables         Causes of Mortality     Migration Human Population Growth     Population Increase         Global Population Growth         Regional Population Growth     Human Population Structure     Implications of Growth Chapter Summary   Chapter 9:  Life Span: Growth and Development p.161 The General Pattern of Human Growth     Prenatal Growth         Early Development         The Embryonic Period         The Fetal Period         Effects of Premature Birth or Disrupted Fetal Development     Growth After Birth: General Patterns         Whole Body Growth Pattern         A Brief Aside on Sampling Issues         Distance, Velocity and Acceleration of Growth         The Human Pattern of Growth         The Three Stages of Growth         Saltational Nature of Growth         Sex Differences Growth of Specific Body Parts     Development of Specific Systems         Neurological Development         Immunological Development         Reproductive System Development     Development of Selected Other Systems         Dental Development         Skeletal Growth         Development of Adipose Tissue Growth After Birth: Population Differences     Environmental Effects on Growth         Secular Trends in General Growth         Why the Secular Trend in Growth?         Negative Secular Trends in Growth         Effects of Undernutrition on Growth         Effects of Overnutrition on Growth         Effects of Disease on Growth         Effects of High Altitude Hypoxia on Growth         Catch Up Growth     Genetics and Population Growth Differences         African Short-Statured Populations         Short-Statured Populations in Southeast Asia Growth and Development: A Final Consideration Chapter Summary   Chapter 10:  Life Span: Aging and Senescence p.181 The Biology of Senescence     Aging at the Cellular Level         Hayflick and Limits to Mitosis         The Cell Membrane and Cytoskeleton in Senescence         Aging and the Mitochondrion         Aging and Lysosomes     Aging at the Organismal Level         Aging of the Musculoskeletal System         Aging and the Immune System         Aging and the Cardiovascular System         Aging and the Neurological System         Aging and the Reproductive System     Superficial Changes During Senescence         The Hair Cycle         Aging and the Hair Cycle         Skin Aging Theories of Senescence     Mechanistic Theories of Senescence         Oxidative Damage         Nonenzymatic Glycation         Cross-linkage         Mitochondrial Changes         Telomere Shortening     Evolutionary Theories of Senescence         Theory of Mutation Accumulation         Theory of Antagonistic Pleiotropy         Disposable Soma Theory     Selected System-Specific Senescence Theories         Menopause and the Grandmother Hypothesis         The Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis     Conclusion: Theories of Senescence The Human Population Biology of Senescence     Population Differences in Life Span         Life Expectancy         Maximum Life Span         Species Differences in Maximum Life Span         Shangri-La or Bust         Sardinia     Sex Differences in Senescence     Population Differences in Diseases Associated With Senescence          Osteoporosis          Osteoarthritis          Sarcopenia          Cardiovascular Disease          Cancer          Population Differences: Conclusion Conclusion Chapter Summary   Chapter 11: Human Adaptability to Physical Stressors p.201 Limiting Factors, Tolerance and Environmental Physiology     Law of Tolerance     Environmental Physiology         Individual Level Changes: Behavioral Adaptations         Individual Level Changes: Physiological Adaptations         Individual Level Changes: Acclimatization         Individual Level Changes: Developmental Adaptations         Population Level Changes: Cultural Adaptations         Population Level Changes: Demographic Adjustments         Population Level Changes: Genetic Adaptations     Human Adaptability         The “Single-Stressor” Model         Essential and Key Resources         Properties of Stressors and Responses         Limitations of the Single Stressor Model Adaptation to Cold and Heat     Thermoregulation         Metabolism         Radiation         Conduction         Convection         Evaporation         Heat Balance Equation     Cold Adaptation         Behavioral and Cultural Adaptations to Cold         Biological Responses to Cold Exposure         Metabolic Adjustments to Cold Exposure         Habituation Responses to Moderate Cold         Peripheral Cold Exposure         Adaptive Consequences of Cold Stress     Heat Adaptation     Hot-Dry Environments         Behavioral and Cultural Adaptations to Dry Heat         Biological Responses to Dry Heat Exposure         Heat Transfer         Vascular Responses         Sweating         Acclimatization and Individual Differences in Heat Adaptation     Warm-Humid Environments         Behavioral and Cultural Adaptations to Humid Heat         Biological Responses to Humid Heat Exposure     Conclusion to Thermoregulation Adaptation to High Altitude     Behavioral and Cultural Adaptations to Hypoxia     Biological Adaptations to Hypoxia         Ventilation         Oxygen Movement from Lungs to Blood         Circulation         Tissue and Cellular Adaptations     Population Differences in Adaptability to High Altitude Hypoxia         Andean Population Adaptations         Tibetan Population Adaptations High Activity Levels     The Requirements of Work     Behavioral and Cultural Adjustments to High Work Loads     Biological Adaptations to High Work Loads         Physical Fitness         Aerobic Capacity         Types of Muscle Fibers     Adaptive Consequences of Work Capacity         Factors Affecting Work Requirements         Impact of Modernization Conclusion Chapter Summary   Chapter 12: Human Adaptability to Biological Stressors p.226 Malnutrition     Food Versus Nutrients     Types of Nutrients         Macronutrients         Micronutrients Protein-Calorie Malnutrition     Protein Deficiency         Protein Quality of Foods         Global View of Protein Deficiency         The Biology of Protein Deficiency     Protein-Calorie Malnutrition: Total Undernutrition         Energy Reserves         Adaptations to PCM: The Cori Cycle         Responses to Prolonged Undernutrition         Evolution and Adaptations to PCM Micronutrient Deficiencies     Vitamin Deficiencies         Vitamin A         Thiamine (Vitamin B1)         Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)         Niacin (Vitamin B3)         Other B Vitamins         Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)         Vitamin D     Electrolyte and Mineral Deficiencies         Electrolytes         Iron         Iodine         Calcium     Overnutrition         Conclusion: Malnutrition Infectious Diseases           Host-Parasite Relationships         Evolution and Virulence         Considerations in Disease Transmission     Vector Borne Diseases         Vectors         Malaria         Malaria Transmission         Adaptations to Malaria         Schistosomiasis     Direct Contact Diseases         Conditions for Transfer of Pathogens         Ebola         Measles         Influenza         Virgin Soil Epidemics     Diseases Due to Intimate Contact         Treponemal Diseases         HIV/AIDS     Poor Sanitation Diseases         Ascaris         Cholera         Balancing Immune Protection and Immune Damage Conclusion: Infectious Diseases General Conclusion: The Impact of Biological Stressors on Human Biology Chapter Summary   Chapter 13: Human Biology in the Modern World p.251 Possible Reduced Selective Forces     The Accumulation of Minor Genetic Problems         Myopia         Dental Caries         Can Cumulative Minor Effects Lead to Bigger Problems?     Reduced Selection Due to Medical Interventions         Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus         Phenylketonuria         Cystic Fibrosis         Magnitude of the Problem         Genetic Engineering General Stress     The Nature of General Stress         Stress Defined         Stress Theories         The Systemic General Stress Response         The Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis         The Sympathetic Adrenal Medullary (SAM) Axis         The Causes of General Stress         Stress at the Cellular Level Effects of the General Stress Response         Stress and Heart Disease         Stress and Hypertension         Stress and Other Chronic Diseases Adiposity and Obesity: Are We Eating Ourselves to Death?     The Obesity Epidemic     The Causes of Increased Adiposity         Genes and Environment         Proximate Causes of Obesity         Development and Obesity         Inflammation and Obesity     The Effects of Increased Adiposity         The Metabolic Syndrome         Type 2 Diabetes         Cardiovascular Disease Pollution: The Fouling of the Environment     Air Pollution         Smoke         Smog         Chemicals in Air Pollution         Particulates in Air Pollution         The Health Effects of Air Pollution     Water Pollution         Agricultural Sources of Water Pollution         Health Effects of Water Pollution     Solid Waste Pollution     Pollution and Human Variation Conclusion       Chapter Summary   Chapter 14: Human Biological Variation: A Look to the Future and Some Final Thoughts on Ethics p.274 Human Biology in the Future     An Individual Level View of Future Human Biology     The Future of Human Population Variability         Genetic Variability in Our Species         Population Variability in the Future         Space Colonies         Human Biobehavioral Variability Final Thoughts on the Ethics of Human Biology Research     Prevention of Harm to the Individual Participant         Huntington’s Disease         Confidentiality         Job and Insurance Concerns         Human Subject Committees and IRBs     Prevention of Harm to Communities         Anthropology and Ethics         Heterogeneity of Culture and of Communities What is Normal?     Health as Normality     Biological Characteristics and Normality     Ethics and Notions of Normality         Disability Rights         Variation Is Natural Chapter Summary   Glossary p.283 Reference p.293 Index p. 318

About the Author :
Daniel Brown is Professor of Anthropology and Coordinator of Research and Graduate Education at the University of Hawaii at Hilo.  He has taught classes in all areas of physical anthropology, as well as in cultural anthropology and archaeology.  Dr. Brown’s research interest focuses on variation in how humans cope with psychosocial and physical stress, and the implications of that variation for health disparities.  He has received Chancellor Citations both for teaching and research at his university, and was elected as a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.  He is a former President of the Human Biology Association, an international organization whose mission “is to advance the understanding of human biological variation, to enhance the training of professional human biologists, and to foster a better comprehension of the scope of human biology among scientific professionals and the public.”